Journal question 1
As a person gets older, the risk of high blood pressure is greater. Men have a slightly greater risk than females.
Journal question 2
If the majority of the people in a group are older, or more are males, the average blood pressure for the group would be higher than if the group was younger and consisted of more females.
Journal question 3
I will first go through and test all the age ranges for the females, finding the average systolic and diastolic pressures. I will then repeat the process for the males, and chart my findings.
Journal question 4
The pattern I observed was that the average systolic and diastolic blood pressure incresed with age, especially in the males. The female's varied more, but the risk of high blood pressure was still the greatest in the oldest age group.
Journal question 5
The result of my experiment clearly supported my hypothesis. The risk of high blood pressure increased with age, and the average for the males was higher than the females.
Journal question 6
Poor diet, alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, and family history usually played a factor in the people that were outside the normal range. People that were overweight also had higher blood pressure
Journal question 7
family history, high salt diet, lack of exercise, alcohol consumption. I think a high salt diet is most closely observed with hypertension.
Journal question 8
Obesity alone does not cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure. A person's diet and activity level can play a part in adding to the person's risk.
Table
For some reason, blogger is giving me trouble tonight - I will post my table and graph as soon as it will let me
Monday, September 29, 2008
Sunday, September 28, 2008
Compendium Review Unit 2 Major Topic 1
Compendium Review Unit 2 Major Topic One
I. Cardiovascular system - heart and blood vessels
A. Functions
1. contractions generate blood pressure
2. blood vessels transport blood
3. exchanges at capillaries refresh blood and tissue fluid
4. heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow
B. Lymphatic System
C. Types of Blood Vessels
1. arteries
2. capillaries
3. veins
D. heart is a double pump
1. route of blood through the heart
2. controlled heartbeat
a. internal
b. external
3. electrocardiogram
E. Pulse and heart rate
F. Regulation of blood flow
G. Pulmonary Circuit
H. Systemic Circuit
I. Cardiovascular Disorders
1. high blood pressure
2. stroke and heart attack
3. treatments
4. heart disorders
II. Cardiovascular System - blood
A. Functions
B. Composition
1. plasma
C. Red Blood Cells
1. transport
2. disorders
D. White Blood Cells
1. types
2. disorders
E. Blood clotting
1. disorders
F. Blood typing
1. ABO
2. Rh
G. Homeostasis
III. Lymphatic System / Immunity
A. Bacteria
B. Viruses
C. Prions
D. Lymphatic System
1. vessels
2. organs
E. nonspecific defenses
1. barriers
2. inflammatory response
F. specific defenses
1. antibodies
2. T cells
G. Acquired Immunity
1. active
2. passive
H. Hypersensitivity
1. allergies
2. disorders
IV. AIDS
A. Origin of AIDS
1. prevalence
B. phases of HIV infection
1. acute
2. chronic
3. AIDS
C. HIV structure and life cycle
D. testing and treatment
The cardiovascular system contains the heart and the blood vessels. The main function of the heart is to pump blood, and the blood flows through the blood vessels. The true purpose of circulating blood is to service the cells. Cells are surrounded by tissue fluid. Blood exchanges substances indirectly with the cells by exchanging with tissue fluid. Blood removes waste products from the tissue fluid, and brings the tissue fluid oxygen and nutrients to keep the cells functioning. At the lungs, carbon dioxide leaves the blood, and oxygen enters the blood. There are four main functions of the cardiovascular system. First of all, contractions of the heart are what generates blood pressure. Second, blood vessels transport the blood. Third, exchanges at the capillaries refresh the blood and the tissue fluid. Lastly, the heart and the blood vessels regulate blood flow. The lymphatic system plays an important role in the functioning of the cardiovascular system because the lymphatic vessels collect the excess tissue fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system.
There are three types of blood vessels : arteries, capillaries, and veins. The walls of an artery have three layers...the endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue. Arterioles are small arteries that we can see. The arteries move blood away from the heart. The arteries then branch into blood vessels known as the capillaries. These are microscopic tubes that are made up of only endothelium with a basement membrane. Capillaries are present everywhere in the body. The veins have valves that control the direction of the flow of blood. Seventy percent of blood is in the veins at any given time.
The heart is cone shaped and is located between the lungs. The major part consists mainly of cardiac muscle tissue, and is called the myocardium. The pericardium surrounds the heart. Inside the heart, there is a wall called a septum, that separates it into the right and left sides. The heart has four chambers. The upper chambers are called the atrium, and the lower are the ventricles.
There is a specific path blood follows when it flows through the heart. The following is direct from the textbook, page 89.
-The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, which carry 02 poor blood, enter the right atrium.
- The right atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle
- the right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk, which carries O2 poor blood, eivides into two pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs
-Four pulmonary veins, which carry O2 rich blood, enter the left artium
-the left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the bicuspid [mitral] valve) to the left ventricle
-the left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta to the body proper
Oxygen poor blood is always kept separate from the oxygen rich blood. The left side of the heart is the stronger pump, causing blood pressure to be greatest in the aorta.
Every heartbeat is known as a cardiac cycle. Systole, or the working phase, happens when the chambers contract. Diastole, or the resting phase, is when the chambers relax. The heart beats about seventy times a minute. Internal nodes are what control the rhythmical contraction of the atria and ventricles. The sinoatrial node is known as the pacemaker because it regulates the heartbeats. The heartbeat can also be regulated by external means such as when we exercise. It is possible to get a recording of electrical changes in the heart. This recording is called an electrocardiogram, or an ECG.
Your pulse rate is the same as your heart rate. The pulse is the rhythmic expansion and recoil of an arterial wall. The beating of the heart creates pressure which sends blood to arteries and arterioles. This pressure is called blood pressure. Systolic pressure is the highest arterial pressure and happens when blood is ejected from the heart. Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure and occurs while the ventricles are relaxing. Normal adult systolic pressure should be between 95 and 135, while diastolic should be between 50 and 90.
There are two circuits that allow blood to flow through. These are the pulmonary circuit, which exchanges gases, and they systemic circuit which exchanges with tissue fluid. The coronary arteries are the first branches off of the aorta and serve the actual heart muscle. Blood pressure and osmotic pressure are what control the movement of fluid through the capillary wall.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of early death among Western countries. Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, can be deadly because it often is not found until it has caused a heart attack or a stroke. This can usually be controlled by living a healthier lifestyle to include not smoking, and eating a healthy diet. Clogged arteries are another disease and can be treated by a coronary bypass operation to remove plaque from the arteries.
Heart failure occurs when a person's heart fails to pump as it should. It is possible to have a heart transplant, but unfortunately, there are far more people needing hearts than there are available donors.
There are approximately five liters of blood in the human body. The heart pumps this amount every time it beats. Blood defends the body against pathogen invasions. Some blood cells destroy pathogens while others produce antibodies. Blood also clots to prevent blood loss. Blood also helps regulate body temperature by picking up heat.
Blood has multiple components. The formed elements are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These are all formed in red bone marrow. Red blood cells are more abundant than white blood cells, but are smaller in size. Plasma is the liquid that carries substances in the blood. Plasma is made up of 91% water. There are three main types of plasma proteins : albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. They are small disks that do not have a nucleus. They are needed for oxygen transport. They carry hemoglobin instead of having a nucleus. Hemoglobin is what gives blood its red color. Blood picks up carbon dioxide in the tissue, and seven percent is dissolved in the plasma. Hemoglobin directly transports 25%. The rest is transported in the plasma. About two million red blood cells are destroyed per second, and the body has to produce new ones at the same rate. When insufficient oxygen is being delivered to the cells, erythropoietin is released by the kidneys and stimulates the stem cells in the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. An insufficient number of red blood cells is known as anemia, which can be caused by an iron deficiency.
White blood cells are known as leukocytes. They have a nucleus and lack hemoglobin. They are translucent unless they have been stained. White blood cells are a very important part of the immune system because their main function is to fight infection. There are two types of white blood cells : granular leukocytes which include neutrophils. eosinophils, and basophils; and agranular leukocytes which include lymphocytes, and monocytes. One of the better known disorders having to do with white blood cells is leukemia. Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells.
Platelets are also known as thrombocytes and are responsible for the clotting of blood. When a blood vessel is damaged. platelets combine together to stop the bleeding. An inherited disorder that keeps blood from clotting is called hemophilia.
Everybody has a certain blood type. If you have type A blood, then your body has anti-B antibodies in the plasma, which would keep a blood transfusion that didn't match your blood type from being successful. Type O blood is also known as the universal donor, because it will not cause agglutination with any blood type. If a women does not have the Rh factor in her blood, and the father does, it can be passed through the placenta from the fetus to the mother. This can destroy blood cells. An Rh negative woman needs to have an immunoglobulin injection within 72 hours of giving birth to an Rh positive child.
Homeostasis is made possible by the cardiovascular system delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system, and the lymphatic system returning tissue fluid to the bloodstream.
The human body has three barriers of defense against invasions by pathogens. First of all, barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes, prevent entry. Phagocytic white blood cells help prevent infection after an invasion. Specific defenses overtake the infection by killing the disease causing agent.
One of the main types of pathogens is bacteria. These are single celled prokaryotes which lack a nucleus. There are three common shapes of a bacterium : bacillus, coccus, and spirillum. Bacteria are independent and metabolically competent. Some have plasmids, or accessory rings of DNA. This is where the genes that allow bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics are often located. Another pathogen is a virus which bridges the gap between living and nonliving. When a virus replicates inside a cell, they appear alive. Viruses are four times smaller than a bacteria. They take over the metabolic machinery of a host cell.
The lymphatic system is made up of vessels and organs. Lymph, a colorless liquid, is the fluid inside lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic organs consist of red bone marrow, the thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the spleen. Red bone marrow is where blood cells are produced. The thymus gland produces hormones and it is also the place where T lymphocytes go to mature. The spleen’s purpose is to filter blood, and lymph nodes filter lymph.
Immunity is the ability to combat disease. The body has several built in barriers to try and prevent invasion by pathogens. Some of these include the skin and mucous membranes, sebaceous glands, and normal flora. The body’s second line of defense is known as the inflammatory response. Chemical mediators are released by damaged tissue cells causing the capillaries to dilate. More blood flows through these, increasing temperature, which inhibits the growth of some pathogens.
Certain types of defenses respond to antigens. These depend on either B cells or T cells which recognize antigens. There are five different classes of antibodies. T cells recognize antigens without any help. Helper T cells regulate immunity. Memory T cells serve the purpose of just what they sound like – they remember pathogens that have been in the body before and can jumpstart an immune reaction.
Active immunity occurs when a person is well and can be vaccinated, or immunized, against an infection in order to prevent it. Passive immunity is when a person is given immune cells to fight off a disease.
Allergies are when the body is hypersensitive to specific substances. Common allergens are pollen, food, or animal hair. Allergic reactions tend to include tissue damage. A severe allergic reaction is anaphylactic shock.
A person with an autoimmune disease suffers because antibodies wrongly attack the body’s own cells, thinking that they contain foreign antigens.
One of the worst autoimmune diseases worldwide today, is AIDS, or Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome which is caused by a virus called human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV. HIV originated in Africa and spread to the United States through the Caribbean. The name AIDS was not coined until 1982. AIDS is considered a pandemic because it is a global condition.
There are three phases of HIV infection. The first phase is acute phase. The person in this phase usually has no symptoms and is highly infectious. Their CD4 T cell count has not yet fallen below 500 cells per cubic millimeter. The next phase is chronic phase. This person has a CD4 T cell count between 499 and 200 cells per cubic millimeter. They have begun to show several symptoms common to a suffering immune system. The final category is AIDS. This is when the CD4 T cell count is below 200 cells and the person has developed one or more of the opportunistic infections described by the CDC’s list of conditions for AIDS definition. Death usually follows within two to four years of this final phase.
HIV can be transmitted by sexual contact or by needle sharing between intravenous drug users. The bodily fluids with the highest concentration of HIV include blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.
There is no cure for AIDS. There is, however, ongoing research that hopes to make a vaccination available possibly as soon as the year 2010.
I. Cardiovascular system - heart and blood vessels
A. Functions
1. contractions generate blood pressure
2. blood vessels transport blood
3. exchanges at capillaries refresh blood and tissue fluid
4. heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow
B. Lymphatic System
C. Types of Blood Vessels
1. arteries
2. capillaries
3. veins
D. heart is a double pump
1. route of blood through the heart
2. controlled heartbeat
a. internal
b. external
3. electrocardiogram
E. Pulse and heart rate
F. Regulation of blood flow
G. Pulmonary Circuit
H. Systemic Circuit
I. Cardiovascular Disorders
1. high blood pressure
2. stroke and heart attack
3. treatments
4. heart disorders
II. Cardiovascular System - blood
A. Functions
B. Composition
1. plasma
C. Red Blood Cells
1. transport
2. disorders
D. White Blood Cells
1. types
2. disorders
E. Blood clotting
1. disorders
F. Blood typing
1. ABO
2. Rh
G. Homeostasis
III. Lymphatic System / Immunity
A. Bacteria
B. Viruses
C. Prions
D. Lymphatic System
1. vessels
2. organs
E. nonspecific defenses
1. barriers
2. inflammatory response
F. specific defenses
1. antibodies
2. T cells
G. Acquired Immunity
1. active
2. passive
H. Hypersensitivity
1. allergies
2. disorders
IV. AIDS
A. Origin of AIDS
1. prevalence
B. phases of HIV infection
1. acute
2. chronic
3. AIDS
C. HIV structure and life cycle
D. testing and treatment
The cardiovascular system contains the heart and the blood vessels. The main function of the heart is to pump blood, and the blood flows through the blood vessels. The true purpose of circulating blood is to service the cells. Cells are surrounded by tissue fluid. Blood exchanges substances indirectly with the cells by exchanging with tissue fluid. Blood removes waste products from the tissue fluid, and brings the tissue fluid oxygen and nutrients to keep the cells functioning. At the lungs, carbon dioxide leaves the blood, and oxygen enters the blood. There are four main functions of the cardiovascular system. First of all, contractions of the heart are what generates blood pressure. Second, blood vessels transport the blood. Third, exchanges at the capillaries refresh the blood and the tissue fluid. Lastly, the heart and the blood vessels regulate blood flow. The lymphatic system plays an important role in the functioning of the cardiovascular system because the lymphatic vessels collect the excess tissue fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system.
There are three types of blood vessels : arteries, capillaries, and veins. The walls of an artery have three layers...the endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue. Arterioles are small arteries that we can see. The arteries move blood away from the heart. The arteries then branch into blood vessels known as the capillaries. These are microscopic tubes that are made up of only endothelium with a basement membrane. Capillaries are present everywhere in the body. The veins have valves that control the direction of the flow of blood. Seventy percent of blood is in the veins at any given time.
The heart is cone shaped and is located between the lungs. The major part consists mainly of cardiac muscle tissue, and is called the myocardium. The pericardium surrounds the heart. Inside the heart, there is a wall called a septum, that separates it into the right and left sides. The heart has four chambers. The upper chambers are called the atrium, and the lower are the ventricles.
There is a specific path blood follows when it flows through the heart. The following is direct from the textbook, page 89.
-The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, which carry 02 poor blood, enter the right atrium.
- The right atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle
- the right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk, which carries O2 poor blood, eivides into two pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs
-Four pulmonary veins, which carry O2 rich blood, enter the left artium
-the left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the bicuspid [mitral] valve) to the left ventricle
-the left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta to the body proper
Oxygen poor blood is always kept separate from the oxygen rich blood. The left side of the heart is the stronger pump, causing blood pressure to be greatest in the aorta.
Every heartbeat is known as a cardiac cycle. Systole, or the working phase, happens when the chambers contract. Diastole, or the resting phase, is when the chambers relax. The heart beats about seventy times a minute. Internal nodes are what control the rhythmical contraction of the atria and ventricles. The sinoatrial node is known as the pacemaker because it regulates the heartbeats. The heartbeat can also be regulated by external means such as when we exercise. It is possible to get a recording of electrical changes in the heart. This recording is called an electrocardiogram, or an ECG.
Your pulse rate is the same as your heart rate. The pulse is the rhythmic expansion and recoil of an arterial wall. The beating of the heart creates pressure which sends blood to arteries and arterioles. This pressure is called blood pressure. Systolic pressure is the highest arterial pressure and happens when blood is ejected from the heart. Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure and occurs while the ventricles are relaxing. Normal adult systolic pressure should be between 95 and 135, while diastolic should be between 50 and 90.
There are two circuits that allow blood to flow through. These are the pulmonary circuit, which exchanges gases, and they systemic circuit which exchanges with tissue fluid. The coronary arteries are the first branches off of the aorta and serve the actual heart muscle. Blood pressure and osmotic pressure are what control the movement of fluid through the capillary wall.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of early death among Western countries. Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, can be deadly because it often is not found until it has caused a heart attack or a stroke. This can usually be controlled by living a healthier lifestyle to include not smoking, and eating a healthy diet. Clogged arteries are another disease and can be treated by a coronary bypass operation to remove plaque from the arteries.
Heart failure occurs when a person's heart fails to pump as it should. It is possible to have a heart transplant, but unfortunately, there are far more people needing hearts than there are available donors.
There are approximately five liters of blood in the human body. The heart pumps this amount every time it beats. Blood defends the body against pathogen invasions. Some blood cells destroy pathogens while others produce antibodies. Blood also clots to prevent blood loss. Blood also helps regulate body temperature by picking up heat.
Blood has multiple components. The formed elements are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These are all formed in red bone marrow. Red blood cells are more abundant than white blood cells, but are smaller in size. Plasma is the liquid that carries substances in the blood. Plasma is made up of 91% water. There are three main types of plasma proteins : albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. They are small disks that do not have a nucleus. They are needed for oxygen transport. They carry hemoglobin instead of having a nucleus. Hemoglobin is what gives blood its red color. Blood picks up carbon dioxide in the tissue, and seven percent is dissolved in the plasma. Hemoglobin directly transports 25%. The rest is transported in the plasma. About two million red blood cells are destroyed per second, and the body has to produce new ones at the same rate. When insufficient oxygen is being delivered to the cells, erythropoietin is released by the kidneys and stimulates the stem cells in the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. An insufficient number of red blood cells is known as anemia, which can be caused by an iron deficiency.
White blood cells are known as leukocytes. They have a nucleus and lack hemoglobin. They are translucent unless they have been stained. White blood cells are a very important part of the immune system because their main function is to fight infection. There are two types of white blood cells : granular leukocytes which include neutrophils. eosinophils, and basophils; and agranular leukocytes which include lymphocytes, and monocytes. One of the better known disorders having to do with white blood cells is leukemia. Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells.
Platelets are also known as thrombocytes and are responsible for the clotting of blood. When a blood vessel is damaged. platelets combine together to stop the bleeding. An inherited disorder that keeps blood from clotting is called hemophilia.
Everybody has a certain blood type. If you have type A blood, then your body has anti-B antibodies in the plasma, which would keep a blood transfusion that didn't match your blood type from being successful. Type O blood is also known as the universal donor, because it will not cause agglutination with any blood type. If a women does not have the Rh factor in her blood, and the father does, it can be passed through the placenta from the fetus to the mother. This can destroy blood cells. An Rh negative woman needs to have an immunoglobulin injection within 72 hours of giving birth to an Rh positive child.
Homeostasis is made possible by the cardiovascular system delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system, and the lymphatic system returning tissue fluid to the bloodstream.
The human body has three barriers of defense against invasions by pathogens. First of all, barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes, prevent entry. Phagocytic white blood cells help prevent infection after an invasion. Specific defenses overtake the infection by killing the disease causing agent.
One of the main types of pathogens is bacteria. These are single celled prokaryotes which lack a nucleus. There are three common shapes of a bacterium : bacillus, coccus, and spirillum. Bacteria are independent and metabolically competent. Some have plasmids, or accessory rings of DNA. This is where the genes that allow bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics are often located. Another pathogen is a virus which bridges the gap between living and nonliving. When a virus replicates inside a cell, they appear alive. Viruses are four times smaller than a bacteria. They take over the metabolic machinery of a host cell.
The lymphatic system is made up of vessels and organs. Lymph, a colorless liquid, is the fluid inside lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic organs consist of red bone marrow, the thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the spleen. Red bone marrow is where blood cells are produced. The thymus gland produces hormones and it is also the place where T lymphocytes go to mature. The spleen’s purpose is to filter blood, and lymph nodes filter lymph.
Immunity is the ability to combat disease. The body has several built in barriers to try and prevent invasion by pathogens. Some of these include the skin and mucous membranes, sebaceous glands, and normal flora. The body’s second line of defense is known as the inflammatory response. Chemical mediators are released by damaged tissue cells causing the capillaries to dilate. More blood flows through these, increasing temperature, which inhibits the growth of some pathogens.
Certain types of defenses respond to antigens. These depend on either B cells or T cells which recognize antigens. There are five different classes of antibodies. T cells recognize antigens without any help. Helper T cells regulate immunity. Memory T cells serve the purpose of just what they sound like – they remember pathogens that have been in the body before and can jumpstart an immune reaction.
Active immunity occurs when a person is well and can be vaccinated, or immunized, against an infection in order to prevent it. Passive immunity is when a person is given immune cells to fight off a disease.
Allergies are when the body is hypersensitive to specific substances. Common allergens are pollen, food, or animal hair. Allergic reactions tend to include tissue damage. A severe allergic reaction is anaphylactic shock.
A person with an autoimmune disease suffers because antibodies wrongly attack the body’s own cells, thinking that they contain foreign antigens.
One of the worst autoimmune diseases worldwide today, is AIDS, or Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome which is caused by a virus called human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV. HIV originated in Africa and spread to the United States through the Caribbean. The name AIDS was not coined until 1982. AIDS is considered a pandemic because it is a global condition.
There are three phases of HIV infection. The first phase is acute phase. The person in this phase usually has no symptoms and is highly infectious. Their CD4 T cell count has not yet fallen below 500 cells per cubic millimeter. The next phase is chronic phase. This person has a CD4 T cell count between 499 and 200 cells per cubic millimeter. They have begun to show several symptoms common to a suffering immune system. The final category is AIDS. This is when the CD4 T cell count is below 200 cells and the person has developed one or more of the opportunistic infections described by the CDC’s list of conditions for AIDS definition. Death usually follows within two to four years of this final phase.
HIV can be transmitted by sexual contact or by needle sharing between intravenous drug users. The bodily fluids with the highest concentration of HIV include blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.
There is no cure for AIDS. There is, however, ongoing research that hopes to make a vaccination available possibly as soon as the year 2010.
Aside from the textbook, I used the following web sources
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/MEDLINEPLUS/ency/images/ency/fullsize/9123.jpg
http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/adam/images/en/blood-types-picture.jpg
http://ucatlas.ucsc.edu/health/aids/images/AIDS_Map_Adults1.gif
Friday, September 19, 2008
Self and Unit Evaluation 1
Self
The three thins I am proudest of from this unit are: my cell model...I think mine turned out pretty unique in that not only did the materials I used resemble the parts of a cell, they also served similar functions; my use of images in all my posts; and the fact that I only had after 8:30 pm every night to work on homework and still accomplished everything on time. The two aspects that can use improvement are probably my compendium reviews could be better organized, and I need to figure out how to use blogger.com better so that my blogs have a neater appearance. Overall, I think my grade should be somewhere around an a-. I am hoping to have more time to work on the overall presentation of my blogs for the next unit.
Unit
I felt most engaged in this unit while doing the genetics lab. I thought the Punnett Squares were enjoyable, and would have enjoyed a more in depth lab. I was most distanced during the reading about the cell parts and functions. I really like the fact that Professor Frolich responds so quickly to any email questions and concerns. The thing I found most puzzling was when I went to look at classmates blogs, there were only a few to look at other than my own. I'm not criticizing, some people work better under last minute pressure. I was surprised at how interesting most of this unit was, being that science has never been a subject of interest for me.
The three thins I am proudest of from this unit are: my cell model...I think mine turned out pretty unique in that not only did the materials I used resemble the parts of a cell, they also served similar functions; my use of images in all my posts; and the fact that I only had after 8:30 pm every night to work on homework and still accomplished everything on time. The two aspects that can use improvement are probably my compendium reviews could be better organized, and I need to figure out how to use blogger.com better so that my blogs have a neater appearance. Overall, I think my grade should be somewhere around an a-. I am hoping to have more time to work on the overall presentation of my blogs for the next unit.
Unit
I felt most engaged in this unit while doing the genetics lab. I thought the Punnett Squares were enjoyable, and would have enjoyed a more in depth lab. I was most distanced during the reading about the cell parts and functions. I really like the fact that Professor Frolich responds so quickly to any email questions and concerns. The thing I found most puzzling was when I went to look at classmates blogs, there were only a few to look at other than my own. I'm not criticizing, some people work better under last minute pressure. I was surprised at how interesting most of this unit was, being that science has never been a subject of interest for me.
Ethical Issue Essay Unit 1
Ethical Issue Essay...Unit 1
What is cloning? Cloning is the a possibility that was first raised when Scottish scientists created the sheep, Dolly, in 1997. There are three different types of cloning. The first is called recombinant DNA technology. This is when scientists transfer a DNA fragment of interest to bacterial plasmid. Plasmids carry up to 20,000 bb of foreign DNA. The second type of cloning is known as reproductive cloning. This is when scientists are able to generate an animal with the same nuclear DNA as a current or previously existing animal. An animal created this way is not really an identical clone of the donor animal, as is the popular belief. The only part that is identical to the donor animal is the chromosomal or nuclear DNA in the clone. Last is therapeutic cloning. This is the production of human embryos to harvest stem cells to study human development and treat disease.
Scientists feel that they are making a major breakthrough, particularly in medicine with all of their advances in genetic engineering. There are several benefits to each of the different types of cloning. Recombinant DNA technology is beneficial because it is important to learn about other related technology. Reproductive cloning is used to develop ways to reproduce animals with special or unique qualities to be used for certain purposes and also to repopulate animal species that are endangered. Therapeutic cloning can be used to produce whole organs from single cells or even to produce healthy cells where disease has affected the body.
However, there are many risks to all forms of genetic cloning. Reproductive cloning only has a ten percent success rate. Even the ten percent of cloned animals that are successful tend to have a much higher rate of disorders, disease, and mutations. The first time a an endangered wild animal was born was in 2001. It was a wild ox known as a gaur. It got an immediate infection and died only forty eight hours after it was born. The American Medical Association, or AMA, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science advise against reproductive cloning. They believe it is highly expensive and overall, ineffeficient. U.S. Congress is considering legislation to ban the process of reproductive cloning in our country. Greenpeace is also strongly against any form of genetic engineering. They state that genetically modified organisms can spread out and breed with natural organisms, thereby contaminating future generations.
Both sides of the debate about genetic engineering have valid points. It has both strengths and weaknesses, and who am I to say which outweighs the other.
I see the debate on cloning going on for many, many more years. I think that before it is accepted by mainstream community, much more research has to be done. The general public is not going to accept cloning when it is so expensive and has a ninety percent rate of failure... I think, however, that when scientists progress further with it, and improve technology, as is always happening, that it might become easier accepted.
Thursday, September 18, 2008
Unit 1 Cell Model
The picture on the left is the materials I used to make my cell, and the picture below is a view of the completed cell
1
2
3(1) closeup of vesicles, lysosomes, and golgi apparatus(2)closeup of mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and nucleus)
3(another view of the completed cell)
I enjoyed creating a model of a cell. I tried to find materials that not only looked like the part of the cell they were supposed to represent, but also served a similar function as what they represented. Here are the items I used, and why :
Cell membrane - wire looming. The cell membrane holds everything in the cell and controls what enters and leaves the cell.
Nucleus - a CD. The nucleus contains all the DNA and genetic information, much as a CD contains and stores information.
Mitochondria - batteries. The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell, much as batteries are the powerhouse of many products.
Golgi apparatus - divided container. The golgi apparatus processes, packages, and secretes cell products. A divided container can also be used to process and package items.
Lysosomes - my daughter's recycle truck, dump truck, and roadkill removal van. The lysosomes are used for waste disposal, and recycling which is the same function of each of the vehicles.
Vesicles - my daughter's pickup truck and bicycle hauler. The vesicles store and transport substances similar to the way you can transport items in either of my daughter's vehicles.
Flagella - end piece of wire looming, with toothpicks inside to represent the microtubules. The flagella is resposnsible for cell movement.
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum - green tea tablets. Smooth ER is used to synthesize fat, and green tea tablets are a weight (fat) loss aid.
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum - plastic animals that are prey in the wild. The Rough ER contains the proteins. Prey contain proteins for their predators.
Ribosomes - plastic animals that are predators in the wild. The ribosomes synthesize proteins...in my model the predators are feasting on the prey, synthesizing their proteins.
Other parts - nucleolus - ball from one of my daughter's toys
chromatin - rice
DNA is a double helix, made up of two strands spiraling around each other. It's structure resembles a ladder, with the rungs being the paired bases. The bases in DNA are Adenine and Thymine along with Guanine and Cytosine. The strands of the double helix are made of playdoh, and the bases are different colored marshmallows.
There are four main phasesof mitosis : prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. I illustrated each of the phases using these materials : red and blue Playdoh for the chromatin, macaroni noodles for the spindle poles, toothpicks for the spindle fibers, green playdoh for the nucleolus and playdoh lids for the nuclei.
During prophase, the centrosomes outside the nucleus have duplicated and begin to move toward opposite ends of the nucleus. The spindle fibers begin to form.
During Metaphase, the centromeres of the duplicated chromosomes line up at the equator. There are spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids.
During Anaphase, the sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes. These move toward the spindle poles.
During Telophase, the daughter cells form as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear.
This was a fun project, and I enjoyed the chance to be creative.
Monday, September 15, 2008
Compendium Review Unit 1 Main Topic 2
Compendium Review Unit 1 Major Topic 2
I. Patterns of Chromosome Inheritance
A. Cell Cycle
1.karyotype
2. cycle
B. Mitosis
1.overview
a. prophase
b. metaphase
c. anaphase
d. telephase
2. cytokinesis
C. Meiosis
1. stages
D. Comparison of meiosis and mitosis
1. spermatogenesis and oogenesis
E. Chromosome Inheritance
1. changes in number
2. chromosomal disorders
3. changes in structure
II. Cancer
A. characteristics of cancer cells
1. genetic disease
2. types of cancer
a. carcinomas
b. sarcomas
c. leukemias
d. lymphomas
B. Causes and Prevention
1. heredity
2. environmental carcinogens
3. dietary
C. Diagnosis
1. warning signs
2. screening tests
3. tumor marker tests
4. genetic tests
D. Treatment of Cancer
1. surgery
2. radiation
3. chemotherapy
4. newer therapies
III. Patterns of Genetic inheritance
A. Genotype and phenotype
B. One and two trait inheritance
1. forming gametes
2. one trait crosses
3. two trait crosses
4. family pedigrees for genetic disorders
5. genetic disorders
C. Beyond Simple Inheritance Patterns
1. polygenic inheritance
2. incomplete dominance and codominance
3. multiple allele inheritance
D. sex linked inheritance
1. x-linked alleles
2. x-linked disorders
IV. DNA Biology and Technology
A.DNA and RNA structure and function
1. structure of DNA
2. replication of DNA
3. structure and function of RNA
a. ribosomal RNA
b. messenger RNA
c. transfer RNA
B. Gene Expression
1. structure and function of proteins
2. gene expression
3. transcription
4. translation
5. regulation
C. Genomes
1. sequence of human genome
2. functional and comparative genomics
3. proteomics and bioinformatics
4. modifying human genome
D. DNA Technology
1. isolating and cloning genes
2. cloning specific DNA sequences
3. biotechnology products
Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes. They are paired up, giving us 23 pairs. Twenty two of these pairs are called autosomes and control traits that have nothing to do with a person's gender. The other pair is called the sex chromosomes because they do determine gender. Males are X and Y, and females are X and X.
picture is of human chromosomes
Karyotypes tell us about cells in the body. A normal body cell has all forty six chromosomes. Mitosis is the process that ensures that every cell has this number. When cells divide, each chromosome is composed of two parts that are identical, called sister chromatids. These contain a DNA double helix. The chromatids are connected at a place called the centromere until the phase of mitiosis in whcih it splits.
The cell cycle has two parts. These are called interphase and cell division. Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase which is broken down into three parts. The organelles carry on their usual functions during this time.
The first stage is known as the G1 stage. The cell doubles its organelles and gathers the materials needed to synthesize DNA. Next is the S stage in which DNA replication occurs, duplicating the chromosomes. In the G2 stage, the cell synthesizes the proteins that are needed for the cell division. After interphase, the cell begins dividing. The first part of this is called M (for mytotic), and cytokinesis. Mitosis is the nuclear division and cytokinesis is division of the cytoplasm. There is a process called apoptosis which is programmed cell death, which occurs to get rid of cells that are dividing when they shouldn't be.
Mitosis is known as duplication division. The nucleus in both of the new cells have the exact same number and types of chromosomes as the cell that divides.
The cell that divides is the parent cell, and the daughter cells are the new cells. When mitosis is about to occur, the chromatin in the nucleus becomes condensed. The centrosomes duplicate and then separate forming the poles of the mitotic spindle. There are four phases of mitosis. The first, prophase, visibly indicate that the cell is ready to divide. Spindle fibers begin to appear and the nuclear envelope begins to split apart. The nucleolus disappears. The chromosomes shorten and thicken and spindle fibers attach to the centromeres. In the next phase, metaphase, the spindle occupies where the nucleus was. The chromosomes are at the center, each with two sister chromatids. In anaphase, the third phase, the centromeres divide, followed by the sister chromatids. The diploid chromosomes move toward each pole. Last is telophase which happens when the chromosomes reach the poles. There they once again become chromatin. The spindles disappear and the nuclear envelope reforms. There are now two daughter nuclei. In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm and the organelles divide, resulting in each cell being enclosed by its own plasma membrane. The cell cycle is very important to a human's well being. It kicks in to repair injuries, and to help us grow.
Meiosis is known as reduction division, involving four daughter cells.
Mitosis is known as duplication division. The nucleus in both of the new cells have the exact same number and types of chromosomes as the cell that divides.
The cell that divides is the parent cell, and the daughter cells are the new cells. When mitosis is about to occur, the chromatin in the nucleus becomes condensed. The centrosomes duplicate and then separate forming the poles of the mitotic spindle. There are four phases of mitosis. The first, prophase, visibly indicate that the cell is ready to divide. Spindle fibers begin to appear and the nuclear envelope begins to split apart. The nucleolus disappears. The chromosomes shorten and thicken and spindle fibers attach to the centromeres. In the next phase, metaphase, the spindle occupies where the nucleus was. The chromosomes are at the center, each with two sister chromatids. In anaphase, the third phase, the centromeres divide, followed by the sister chromatids. The diploid chromosomes move toward each pole. Last is telophase which happens when the chromosomes reach the poles. There they once again become chromatin. The spindles disappear and the nuclear envelope reforms. There are now two daughter nuclei. In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm and the organelles divide, resulting in each cell being enclosed by its own plasma membrane. The cell cycle is very important to a human's well being. It kicks in to repair injuries, and to help us grow.Meiosis is known as reduction division, involving four daughter cells.
Each daughter cell has half as many chromosomes as the parent cell. The parent cells has 2n, or the diploid number of chromosomes, and the daughter cells have n, the haploid number. When meiosis begins, the chromosomes occur in pairs and are called homologues. The divisions of meiosis are meiosis I and meiosis II. During the first one, the chromosomes line up side by side resulting in four chromatids that stay close together. This is called a synapsis. Following this is interkinesis, immediately followed by meiosis II. The centromeres divide and the sister chromatids become chromosomes that are passed on to daughter nuclei. In the end of this process, all four daughter cells have the n number of chromosomes, containing one chromatid. In humans, these cells mature into gametes, sperm and egg), that will fuse during fertilization. Meiosis is part of sexual reproduction. Meiosis I and II both go through the same four stages of nuclear division as mitosis. In prophase I, the spindle appears and synapsis occurs. The homologous chromosomes line up next to each other. This is when an exchange of genetic material may occur. During metaphase I, the homologous pairs line up by themselves at the equator. The events of these two phases ensure that gametes will not have the same chromosomes and genes. 
Meiosis is significant because it is a part of production of sperm and egg. It keeps the chromosome number the same from generation to generation. Even though both mitosis and meiosis are nuclear divisions, there are several differences between the two. Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions while mitosis requires only one. Meiosis produces four daughter cells, mitosis only two. The daughter cells that result from meiosis are haploid, and the daughter cells following mitosis are diploid. The daughter cells from meiosis are not identical to the parent cell. Mitosis occurs in all tissues during growth and repair. Meiosis occurs only at certain times during the life cycle. Meiosis is part of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs.
People sometimes are born with too many or too few sex chromosomes. Aout of all autosomal trisomies, only Down syndrome, Trisomy 21, has a good chance of surviving after birth. People with Down syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21. Chances of a woman having a child born with Down syndrome increase rapidly with age. People with Down syndrome have the following characteristics...short stature, flat face, stubby finger, and the so called simian line. Mental retardation is unfortunately an accompanying part of Down syndrome though the severity of it varies greatly.
Turner syndrome is a syndrome in whcich the individual only has an X chromosome.. Adult females with Turner syndrome are short and have a broad chest with folds of skin on the backs of their necks. They do not undergo puberty or menstruate.
Klinefelter syndrome is when a male is born with two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome. The symptoms are very subtle. There may be some delays with speech and language.
A female with more than two X chromosomes have Poly X. Jacobs Syndrome occurs when males have an X chromosome and two Y chromosomes. They are usually of above average height and have speech problems.
Other chromosomal disorders can occur when there is a change to chromosome structure. There are several types of changes that can occur. A deletion is when an end of a chromosome breaks off. A duplication is when a chromosomal segment appears more than once. An inversion is when a segment of the chromosome is turned 180 degrees. A translocation is when a segment moves from one chromosome to another. A deletion can cause a syndrome such as Williams syndrome. Children with this syndrome are said to have the appearance of pixies and have excellent verbal and musical skills.
Cancer envelopes more than a hundred different diseases, but they all have similarities. Cancer cells do not look like any other cells, and they do not contribute to any function in the body. They have enlarged nuclei and may contain more chromosomes. They are immortal and divide an infinite number of times. They pile together and form a tumor. They don't need growth factors and continuously divide. They gradually become abnormal.
Meiosis is significant because it is a part of production of sperm and egg. It keeps the chromosome number the same from generation to generation. Even though both mitosis and meiosis are nuclear divisions, there are several differences between the two. Meiosis requires two nuclear divisions while mitosis requires only one. Meiosis produces four daughter cells, mitosis only two. The daughter cells that result from meiosis are haploid, and the daughter cells following mitosis are diploid. The daughter cells from meiosis are not identical to the parent cell. Mitosis occurs in all tissues during growth and repair. Meiosis occurs only at certain times during the life cycle. Meiosis is part of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs.
People sometimes are born with too many or too few sex chromosomes. Aout of all autosomal trisomies, only Down syndrome, Trisomy 21, has a good chance of surviving after birth. People with Down syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21. Chances of a woman having a child born with Down syndrome increase rapidly with age. People with Down syndrome have the following characteristics...short stature, flat face, stubby finger, and the so called simian line. Mental retardation is unfortunately an accompanying part of Down syndrome though the severity of it varies greatly.
Turner syndrome is a syndrome in whcich the individual only has an X chromosome.. Adult females with Turner syndrome are short and have a broad chest with folds of skin on the backs of their necks. They do not undergo puberty or menstruate.
Klinefelter syndrome is when a male is born with two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome. The symptoms are very subtle. There may be some delays with speech and language.
A female with more than two X chromosomes have Poly X. Jacobs Syndrome occurs when males have an X chromosome and two Y chromosomes. They are usually of above average height and have speech problems.
Other chromosomal disorders can occur when there is a change to chromosome structure. There are several types of changes that can occur. A deletion is when an end of a chromosome breaks off. A duplication is when a chromosomal segment appears more than once. An inversion is when a segment of the chromosome is turned 180 degrees. A translocation is when a segment moves from one chromosome to another. A deletion can cause a syndrome such as Williams syndrome. Children with this syndrome are said to have the appearance of pixies and have excellent verbal and musical skills.
Cancer envelopes more than a hundred different diseases, but they all have similarities. Cancer cells do not look like any other cells, and they do not contribute to any function in the body. They have enlarged nuclei and may contain more chromosomes. They are immortal and divide an infinite number of times. They pile together and form a tumor. They don't need growth factors and continuously divide. They gradually become abnormal.
picture is of a dividing cancer cell
Cancer is a genetic disease. Oncology is the study of cancer. Oncologists classify cancer according to the place it originates. There are four main types. Carcinomas are of the epithelial tissues. Sarcomas are found in muscles and connective tissue. Leukemias are found in blood. Lymphomas are in the lymphatic tissue. Lung cancer is one of the most common types of cancer. Another common type is colorectal, or cancer of the colon/rectum. My grandmother was diagnosed with colorectal cancer at the age of 73, and four years later was in remission. Around the age of 81, she was diagnosed with kidney cancer, and again a couple years later was in remission. She will be 85 next month and shows no signs of cancer.
Cancer can be hereditary. It can also be caused by environmental carcinogens such as radiation and organic chemicals. Diagnostic x rays account for most of a person's exposure to artificial radiation. Tobacco smoke and pollutants are very harmful. DNA viruses are also directly believed to cause cancer. Nutrition can help a person prevent cancer.
Seven warning signs can help us become aware of whether we need to be concerned. These can be remembered by the word CAUTION. Change in bowel or bladder habits, A sore that does not heal, Unusual bleeding or discharge, Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere, Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing, Obvious change in wart or mole, Nagging cough or hoarseness.
There are several tests that can help diagnosis cancer. The earlier a cancer is found, the better the chance for effective treatment. Routine screening tests, by yourself, and by your physician help to detect the presence of cancer early. Tumor marker tests test the blood for tumor antigens and antibodies. Testing for genetic mutations can also help detect cancer.
There are several types of treatment for cancer. Sometimes surgery is effective all by itself, if it is possible to remove the whole tumor. Surgery is usually either preceded or followed by radiation which causes cell cycle disruption. Chemotherapy is a very common treatment which treats the whole body. This treatment interferes with DNA synthesis. There are also quite a few new therapies that are currently in clinical trials. One of the new ideas is to use immune cells that have been genetically engineered to beat the tumor antigens. Another proposed therapy is drugs that inhibit angiogenesis which confine and reduce tumors.
Genetics and the genes we inherit from our relatives play a big part in making us who we are. Genotype are the genes of an individual. Different forms of a gene that have the same position, or locus, on a pair of chromosomes that affect the same trait are called alleles. A dominant allele uses an uppercase letter and a recessive allele uses a lowercase one. If a zygote has a homozygous dominant genotype, that means it would be denoted by using two uppercase letters, such as EE. A homozygous recessive would possibly be ee, and a heterozygous dominant would use one of each, or Ee. A phenotype is the physical appearance of a person. Either a homozygous dominant or a heterozygous dominant would result in the person having the dominant phenotype.
The chromosome number is reduced during the process of gametogenesis. If an individual had the alleles EE, all gametes would have an E. If an individual were Ee, half would carry and E, and the other half an e. If all were ee, the all the gametes would have an e.
A punnett square illustrates when all possible types of sperm are lined up vertically and all possible types of eggs are lined up horizontally. The result is that all possible combination of gametes is shown. This allows you to figure the chances of an individual having certain genotypes or phenotypes.
If a genetic disorder is autosomal dominant, any individual with alleles AA or Aa will end up with the disorder. If the disorder is autosomal recessive, only individuals with aa will have the disorder. It is possible for parents to be carriers and pass a disorder onto their child without actually having the disorder themselves. In reverse, the parents can each have a disorder without passing it on to their child.
One well known autosomal disorders is Tay-Sachs disease, which occurs commonly among Jewish people in the United States. A baby is born appearing to be healthy. Between four and eight months old the child's development slows down and neurological impairment and psychomotor difficulties begin. The child becomes blind and helpless, begins to have seizures, and ends up paralyzed. Another autosomal recessive disorder is Cystic fibrosis which is most lethal in american caucasians. Mucus in the bronchial tubes is very thick interfering with breathing. Huntington disease is a neurological disorder that included progressive degeneration of the cells in the brain. People with this condition deteriorate quickly. I have a client with this disorder that, in the last three years, I have seen the rapid progression, and it is very sad to watch.
There are several other type of inheritance patterns. Skin color and height are regulated by multiple sets of alleles. These are called polygenic traits. Environmental influences contribute to polygenes that cause club foot, schizophrenia, and cleft lip. Blood type is controlled by multiple alleles.
Traits controlled by the genes in the sex chromosomes are considered sex linked. Color blindness is an example of an x-linked trait. Most sex linked disorders are usually on the x chromosome. Muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia are common X linked disorders.
DNA is found mainly in the chromosomes and is our genetic material. Any genetic material has to be able to replicate to transmit to the next generation, store information, and undergo mutations that provide genetic variability.
RNA is made up of nucleotides that contain ribose. Instead of containing the base thymine, RNA contains uracil. RNA is single stranded. There are three types of RNA. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is where proteins are synthesized. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from the DNA to the ribosomes. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acids to the ribosomes.
Proteins are made up of amino acids. They determine the function and the structure of all the cells in our body. The protein hemoglobin is what causes our red blood cells to be red in color.
Gene expression is how the four bases can provide enough combinations to code for 20 amino acids. There are several steps to this process. Transcription is the first phase. First, mRNA is formed and then it has to be processed before it can enter the cytoplasm. The next phase is translation. During this phase, tRNA molecules bring amino acids to ribosomes. There polypeptide synthesis occurs following the steps : initiation, elongation, and termination. DNA contains a triplet code which stands for a specific amino acid. The chromosome in a certain region must decondense in order for a gene to be transcribed in human cells.
During a thirteen year effort, the Human Genome Project figured out the order of the three billion bases A, T, C, and G in our genomes. The investigators deciphered a short sequence of base pairs using sperm DNA. Genome size is suprisingly not proportionate to the number of genes and does not have anything to do with the complexity of the organism. Then the HGP found out how our gene function in cells to create a human being. By comparing genomes, we are able to better understand how species have evolved. The genomes of all vertebrates are remarkably similar. New endeavors in the scientific world include proteomics (the study of the structure, function, and interaction of cellular proteins), and bioinformatics (the application of computer technologies to the study of the genome).
A person's genome can be modified through Ex vivo gene therapy or in vivo gene therapy.
Science now allows us to clone genes. "Cloning is the production of genetically identical copies of DNA, cells, or organisms through an asexual means (Mader, pg458)." Recombinant DNA allows genes to be cloned. A technician needs a vector where the gene of interest will be introduced into a host cell. Plasmids are common uses for vectors.
Biotechnolgy products include bacteria, plants, and animals which have been genetically engineered. Certain genes are introduced into the cells of these living organisms to get them to behave and develop in certain ways. Animal organs can be used instead of human organs in transplant patients.
In addition to the textbook, I used the following sources:
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cbbc/courses/bio4/bio4-lectures/images/mitosis.JPG
Saturday, September 13, 2008
Genetics Lab
Example of a Punnet square for 2 heterozygous genotypes
NOTE - there might be some missing images...for
some reason my computer and adding images to this blog just wasn't working...I lost my whole blog post at one time and had to redo it all
I, personally, found Chapter 20, "Patterns of Genetic Inheritance", to be the most interesting so far. I can remember enjoying this part of biology back in 9th grade, but that was a good fifteen years ago. Genetics basically is what defines who we are. Our parents, our grandparents, and ancestors before them have passed down their genetic information to us to help make us who we are. It can be anything from the color of our eyes, to, unfortunately, being more susceptible to a disease. Once again, I couldn't get my computer to cooperate with copying the whole screen, so I again have images from my digital camera.l'd like to define some basic genetic terms.
final screen from fruit fly punnett square
Both parents were heterozygous dominant (meaning they carried one dominant and one recessive gene which presents as a dominant trait)
Genotype is the genes that an individual has. The following Punnet square shows the genotype of a pollen (Bb), crossing with a pistil (also Bb)
Phenotype is the visual characteristic that an individual has. Here, I am going to seize the opportunity of showing off my daughter by using the illustration that red hair is a phenotype.
An allele is the alternative forms of a gene that have the same position on a pair of chromosomes and affect the same trait.
A cross is what you get when you combine the genes of both parents and come up with the characteristics of the offspring.
(final screen of dragon genetics...all genes were matched up...I actually had a hard time matching the color until I realized you could look up what the genotype was supposed to be)An example of genotype in this lab would be the gene for color 2 Bb, and the phenotype would be the dragon's blue skin.
A dominant allele is expressed by the use of a capital letter, and has a higher chance of being passed on as does a recessive. For example, the genotypes EE, and Ee would both show the dominant trait.
A recessive allele is expressed by the use of a lowercase letter, and when mixed with a dominant, the dominant trait will show. Only the genotype ee would show the recessive trait.
Once again, genetics makes up most of who we are. We inherit many things from our ancestors from red hair to anemia.
Wednesday, September 10, 2008
Compendium Review Unit 1 Major Topic 1
Compendium Review Chapters 1-4
I.Exploring life and Science
A.Characteristics of Life
B.How humans are related to Other Animals
C.Seeing Science as a Process
D.Understanding Scientific Study
II.Chemistry of Life
A.From Atoms to Molecules
B.Water and other Living Things
C.Molecules of Life
1.carbohydrates
2.lipids
3.proteins
4.nucleic acids
III. Cell Structure and Function
A.What is a cell?
B.How are cells organized?
C.Parts of a cell
1.plasma membrane
2. nucleus
3.ribosomes
4.endoplasmic reticulum
5.Golgi apparatus
6.lysosomes
D.Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement
E.Mitochondria and Cellular Metabolism
IV. Organization and Regulation of Body Systems
A.Types of Tissues
1.connective
2.muscular
3.nervous
4.epithelial
B.Cell Junctions
C.Skin
D.Organ Systems
E.Homeostasis
Life has seven basic characteristics. Life is organized, from atoms to the biosphere. Ranging from smallest to largest there is the atom, followed by molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. All living things take materials and energy from the environment. Humans and animals acquire energy through the consumption of food. Most living things convert energy into motion. All living things reproduce, creating a copy of the parents. The genes in DNA molecules pass on hereditary info. All living things grow and develop, increasing in size and the number of cells. Living things also share the quality of being homeostatic. Organ systems maintain homeostasis in living things. “For example, human body temperature normally fluctuates slightly between 36.5 degrees Celsius and 37.5 degrees Celsius (Mader, pg. 4)” All living things also respond to stimuli. This can even be noticed in plants which will lean toward their source of light. Finally, all living things have an evolutionary history. Species have changed throughout time to adapt to their environment.
Humans are related to other animals. There are three domains of life.
Archae and bacteria both lack a nucleus. The third domain, is the eukarya, which have a nucleus and are divided into 4 kingdoms : protista (with approximately 250, 000 species), fungi (100,000 species), plantae (250,000 species), and animalia (1,000,000 species). Humans, of course, belong to the kingdom animalia. All humans have a cultural heritage. Activities and products pass on through generations. Humans are important members of the biosphere, but also pose a threat to it as well
Science has a very defined process. Scientists use a method called the scientific method to come up with scientific theories.
The steps to the scientific method are as follows :
1.observation – the researcher makes an observation about a process or event
2.hypothesis – the researcher formulates an idea as to what will happen when a certain situation occurs
3.experiment and observations – the researcher tests the hypotheses
4.conclusion – the researcher comes to a conclusion based on results of the experiment and observations
5.scientific theory – if there is enough evidence to support it, the reasearcher’s discovery becomes a scientific theory
We often use the scientific method to discover things on our own, without even realizing it. For example, when I was reading this chapter more than a week ago, I noticed my not quite 2 year old daughter using it to make a discovery. Here is how she used it.
1.observation – She was sitting on her potty chair, and I was standing in the bathroom with her. She covered her eyes, and remarked, “It’s dark.”
2. hypothesis - She then decided in her mind that when it’s dark she can’t see things.
3. experiment - She sat there for a solid five minutes covering her eyes saying, “It’s dark…no see mama”, then uncovering her eyes saying , “it’s bright – oh, there mama is”. She did this repeatedly (a good scientist always conducts their experiment more than once).
4.conclusion – after five minutes of this repeated behavior, she proudly announced “When cover eyes, it’s dark. I no see mama.”
Experiments are often done by performing a controlled study. In a controlled study, the only things that change are the experimental variables. For example, when testing the effectiveness of a medicine, the control group are just given a placebo. The test group are given the actual medicine. In a completely objective study, a double blind experiment is performed where neither the patient or the examiner know which group is given what.
Scientific journals are highly regarded as the most trustworthy source of scientific information. They come straight from the researcher instead of being passed on by a third, or even fourth, party. They go through a thorough review process before being published. If you look to the internet for scientific information, your best bet are sites ending in .edu, .gov, and .org.
Elements are a basic building block of nature. There are 92 known elements. They are known by name and symbol. For example, Oxygen is O, and Iron is Fe.
Atoms are the smallest unit of life. They have protons, which have a positive charge, and neutrons, which are neutral, in the nucleus. Electrons, with a negative charge, orbit in rings around the nucleus. All elements have an atomic number which tells how many protons and electrons that element has. The atomic mass is equal to the number of neutrons.
Isotopes differ in mass from the original element. Some of these can be radioactive, and are called radioisotopes. If they are used in low levels, they can be used as tracers to be injected into the body to help doctors find what is wrong with organs and tissues. In high levels, radiation can harm cells, damage DNA, or even cause cancer. Scientists have been able,
however, to control the radiation, and have it “introduced into the body in a way that allows radiation to destroy only cancer cells, with little risk to the rest of the body (Mader, og.21a).”
Atoms bond together to form molecules. If the atoms that bond together are different, they form something called a compound. There are two main types of bonding that can occur. These are ionic and covalent. In ionic bonding, atoms give up or take on electrons as they bond to one another. In covalent bonding, the atoms share electrons.
Water is the most abundant thing found in living organisms. It makes up 60 to 70% of total body weight. Water is formed by hydrogen bonds which occur when a covalently bonded hydrogen is only slightly positive and attracts to a negative atom some distance away.
There are six important properties of water. Water is a liquid when it is at room temperature. This gives it several uses, such as drinking, cooking, and bathing. The temperature of water when it is in liquid form, rises and falls very slowly in order to prevent sudden changes. Water keeps the body form overheating because it has a high heat of vaporization. Frozen water is less dense than liquid water, which allows for ice to float on water. This is why aquatic animals have a better chance of surviving cold weather – the ice forms on the surface of the water, allowing them to move freely in the slightly warmer water underneath. Water molecules are cohesive which allows liquids to fill vessels. Water is a solvent for polar molecules and allows chemical reactions to occur. “Ions and molecules that interact with water are said to be hydrophilic. Nonionized and nonpolar molecules that do not interact with water are said to be hydrophobic (Mader, pg25).”
Acids have a high number of hydrogen ions. Some acids that are most commonly known are lemon juice, and coffee. Bases have a low number of hydrogen ions. The most commonly known of these are milk of magnesia, and ammonia. Acids and bases are measured according to the pH scale which is a system of numbers, 0 being the most acidic and 14 being the most basic. 7 is neutral, and includes pure water and tears.
pH scale
There are four molecules of life. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrate molecules look like this : H-C-OH. There are monosaccharides and disaccharides which are considered simple carbs These are when the number of carbon atoms in a carbohydrate are low. Complex carbohydrates, or polysachharides, include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. High fiber carbohydrates can be beneficial to the diet. Lipids are most commonly known as fats, which come from animals, and oils, which come from plants. Emulsifiers can cause fats to mix with waters. Saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbon atoms. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between the carbon atoms. Trans-fats are partially hydrogenated which means that not all bonds are saturated with hydrogen molecules. Steroids are a special type of lipid that differ greatly in structure from fats. Proteins serve many important functions in humans. Proteins such as keratin and collagen provide structural support. They produce enzymes which speed chemical reactions in cells. Channel and carrier proteins exist in the plasma membrane and allow substances to enter and exit the cells. Antibodies are a special type of protein that provide defense. Hormones are a type of regulatory protein. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins that cause muscle contraction, allowing movement. Protein structures have at least three levels of structure…the primary which is linear, the secondary which is an alpha helix or a pleated sheet, and the tertiary, which is three dimensional. Some also have a fourth level, or quaternary structure. There are two types of nucleic acids. These are DNA and RNA. DNA molecules contain many genes which specify the sequence of amino acids. The structure of DNA and RNA differ in their nucleotides. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and RNA contains ribose. There are four types of bases in DNA - adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. In RNA, the base uracil replaces thymine. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate , is an energy carrier in cells
animal cell
The cell theory states that a cell is the basic unit of life and that all living things are made up of cells. It is also known that new cells arise only from preexisting cells. Cells have an evolutionary history. Prokaryotic cells, which had no nucleus, were the first cells. Eukaryotic cells evolved from archaea and have a nucleus, and also an endomembrane system. Eukaryotic cells also have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and organelles. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer which is liquid at room temperature. Its main function is to keep cells intact. It is selectively permeable, which means that it only allows certain substances to pass through. There are several ways in which substances are able to cross the plasma membrane. Diffusion is one of them. It is the random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a plasma membrane. The three types of osmosis are isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic. In facilitated transport, molecules are transported at a higher rate. In acttive transport, molecules move contrary to normal. "During endocytosis, a portion of the plasma membrane invaginates, or forms a pouch, to envelop a substance and fluid. (Mader, p.48)" Exocytosis occurs as a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
The nucleus is the core of the cell. It stores the genetic info and contains DNA and RNA. It also has chromatin which contains DNA and protein. The nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosomes house the protein and rRNA. The endomembrane system is composed of several parts. There is both smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the golgi apparatus, and the lysosomes. The cytoskeleton is made up of large microtubules. It helps maintain a cell's shape and either anchors the organelles or
assists their movement. Organelles move either by cilia or flagella.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell. The process of producing ATP is known as cellular respiration. Respiration is a component of metabolism. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and coenzymes are nonprotein molecules that assist the activity of an enzyme. After glucose and oxygen are transported to cells by the blood, cellular respiration occurs. The main function of cellular respiration is to break down glucose to carbon dioxide and water. The three pathways involved in the breakdown of glucose are glycolysis, which literally means sugar splitting, citric acid cycle, which completes the break down of glucose, and the electron transport chain which accepts two electrons and passes them on to the next carrier, Fermentation is an anaerobic process which gives the body a short energy boost. However, it promotes the buildup of lactate which is toxic to cells and causes muscle cramps and fatigue.
There are four main types of tissues : connective, muscular, nervous, and epithelial.
Four types of tissue
Connective tissues by themselves, have several different types...all with the main function of connecitng and supporting. Fibers are one type of connective tissues and these include collagen, reticular, and elastic. Fibrous connective tissue ca be loose, adipose, or dense (found in tendons and ligaments). Supportive connective tissue is cartiage and can be hyaline (found in the nose), elastic (outer ear), and fibrocartiilage (disks). Bone is also a type of connective tissue and can be compact or spongy. Many people would not think of blood as a tissue, but it is known as a fluid connective tissue, as is lymph. Muscular tissues include skeletal (which is voluntary), smooth (visceral), and cardiac (found in the heart). Nervous tissue communicates and consists fo nerve cells called neurons and neuroglia. Epithelial tissue protects. Simple epithelial tissue can be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar. Pseudostratified columnar appears to be layered. In transitional epithelial tissue, tissue changes in response to tension. Stratified epithelia have many layers of cells piled on top of one another. Glandular epithelia secretes a product. There are three types of cell junctions which help a tissue perform its particular function : tight, adhesion, and gap. The skin of our bodies is known as our integumentary system. It's regions include the epidermis, and the dermis. The subcutaneous layer is beneath the dermis and is not considered a part of skin. It is a common site for injections. There are several parts of our body that are considered accessory organs of the skin. These include nails, hair follicles, oil glands, and sweat glands.
There are many other organ systems in our body that are not delved into in Chapter 4. These include the cardiovascular, the lymphatic and immune, the digestive, the respiratory, the urinary, the skeletal, the muscular, the nervous, the endocrine, and the reproductive.
Homeostasis helps to maintain relative constancy of the internal environment by adjusting physiological processes. Negative feedback keeps the variable close to a set point. Positive feedback brings about an ever greater change.
Aside from using the textbook for this information I also used the following websites
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/trfeb98.htm
http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2007/01/current_biological_diversity.php
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.indiana.edu/~geol116/week1/meth%2520copy.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.indiana.edu/~geol116/week1/week1.html&h=900&w=2100&sz=296&hl=en&start=13&sig2=TCF4zoZl1cLrAmHZogAnOA&um=1&usg=__Yl66ldyeT1sp9eXodRWSTEPmpDw=&tbnid=ShhXAxm-MA41qM:&tbnh=64&tbnw=150&ei=nEvHSNjqHo6OsQOYj7HUDw&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dscientific%2Bmethod%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DN
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/PH_scale.png/639px-PH_scale.png
http://www.uvm.edu/~inquiryb/webquest/fa06/mvogenbe/Animal-Cell.jpg
http://apps.uwhealth.org/health/adam/graphics/images/en/8682.jpg
Sunday, September 7, 2008
Microscope Lab
The lab was fun, but my computer did not want to cooperate with saving the whole screen. I took pictures of the screen with the flash turned off on my digital camera...I hope those will suffice.
First off, let's start with the history of the microscope. The first one was created by Zacharias Janssen (possibly begun by his father) in Holland in 1595. The first compound light microscope was just a simple tube with lenses at either end. It magnified from 3x to 9x. Robert Hooke improved on the microscope around 1660. He coined the word cell to describe features of the plant tissue he had seen under the microscope. The Egyptians, however, may have had an idea of some of the concept for what would become the microscope. There were rock crystal artifacts in the shape of convex leses discovered from around 2600 BCE. Max Knoll and Ernst Rusta invented the first electron microscope in 1931 CE.
There are four main types of microscopes. The most commonly used one is the compound light microscope. It is light illuminated and provides a 2 dimensional view of the specimen. It allows the viewer to see individual cells, including live ones. It has a high magnification, but low resolution. Then there is the dissection microscope whic is also light illuminated. It provides a 3 dimensional image. It does not allow the viewer to see individual cells as it has a low magnification power. Another type is the scanning electron microscope whic is electron illuminated. This provides a 3 dimensional image and has both high magnification and high resolution. The specimen has to be coated in gold, and it produces a black and white image. The final type of microscope is the transmission electron microscope, also electron illuminated. It produces a 2 dimensinal image and uses thin slices of the specimen. It also has both high magnification and high resolution.
Here are the slides I viewed during the lab
onion root tip at 40X
bacterial capsule at 40X
cheek smear at 40X
The parts of a microscope are used as follows:
STAGE - this is the platform where you set your slide for viewing. It is easiest adjusted looking at the microscope. You want to lower it to place your slide, then move it to its top position before viewing.
FOCUS KNOBS - There are two of these, located on the side of the microscope, both best adjusted while looking through the microscope. The coarse focus knob adjusts very quickly and the fine focus fine tunes the image and adjusts slowly.
IRIS - the iris controls the amount of light let through to view the specimen. It is located under the stage and is best adjusted while looking through the microscope.
OCULARS - These are the pieces you look through. They need to be adjusted to fit your face. The usual starting position is both of them on 64. You need to look through them to see if they are adjusted properly. It is best to look through these with your eyes 3/4 of an inch above them.
OBJECTIVES- these are the lenses that magnify your specimen. There are usually 4 on a compound light microscope. You always want to start with the 4X objective and then adust upwards. These are best adjusted looking at the microscope.
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