Compendium Review Unit 2 Major Topic One
I. Cardiovascular system - heart and blood vessels
A. Functions
1. contractions generate blood pressure
2. blood vessels transport blood
3. exchanges at capillaries refresh blood and tissue fluid
4. heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow
B. Lymphatic System
C. Types of Blood Vessels
1. arteries
2. capillaries
3. veins
D. heart is a double pump
1. route of blood through the heart
2. controlled heartbeat
a. internal
b. external
3. electrocardiogram
E. Pulse and heart rate
F. Regulation of blood flow
G. Pulmonary Circuit
H. Systemic Circuit
I. Cardiovascular Disorders
1. high blood pressure
2. stroke and heart attack
3. treatments
4. heart disorders
II. Cardiovascular System - blood
A. Functions
B. Composition
1. plasma
C. Red Blood Cells
1. transport
2. disorders
D. White Blood Cells
1. types
2. disorders
E. Blood clotting
1. disorders
F. Blood typing
1. ABO
2. Rh
G. Homeostasis
III. Lymphatic System / Immunity
A. Bacteria
B. Viruses
C. Prions
D. Lymphatic System
1. vessels
2. organs
E. nonspecific defenses
1. barriers
2. inflammatory response
F. specific defenses
1. antibodies
2. T cells
G. Acquired Immunity
1. active
2. passive
H. Hypersensitivity
1. allergies
2. disorders
IV. AIDS
A. Origin of AIDS
1. prevalence
B. phases of HIV infection
1. acute
2. chronic
3. AIDS
C. HIV structure and life cycle
D. testing and treatment
The cardiovascular system contains the heart and the blood vessels. The main function of the heart is to pump blood, and the blood flows through the blood vessels. The true purpose of circulating blood is to service the cells. Cells are surrounded by tissue fluid. Blood exchanges substances indirectly with the cells by exchanging with tissue fluid. Blood removes waste products from the tissue fluid, and brings the tissue fluid oxygen and nutrients to keep the cells functioning. At the lungs, carbon dioxide leaves the blood, and oxygen enters the blood. There are four main functions of the cardiovascular system. First of all, contractions of the heart are what generates blood pressure. Second, blood vessels transport the blood. Third, exchanges at the capillaries refresh the blood and the tissue fluid. Lastly, the heart and the blood vessels regulate blood flow. The lymphatic system plays an important role in the functioning of the cardiovascular system because the lymphatic vessels collect the excess tissue fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system.
There are three types of blood vessels : arteries, capillaries, and veins. The walls of an artery have three layers...the endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue. Arterioles are small arteries that we can see. The arteries move blood away from the heart. The arteries then branch into blood vessels known as the capillaries. These are microscopic tubes that are made up of only endothelium with a basement membrane. Capillaries are present everywhere in the body. The veins have valves that control the direction of the flow of blood. Seventy percent of blood is in the veins at any given time.
The heart is cone shaped and is located between the lungs. The major part consists mainly of cardiac muscle tissue, and is called the myocardium. The pericardium surrounds the heart. Inside the heart, there is a wall called a septum, that separates it into the right and left sides. The heart has four chambers. The upper chambers are called the atrium, and the lower are the ventricles.
There is a specific path blood follows when it flows through the heart. The following is direct from the textbook, page 89.
-The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, which carry 02 poor blood, enter the right atrium.
- The right atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle
- the right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk, which carries O2 poor blood, eivides into two pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs
-Four pulmonary veins, which carry O2 rich blood, enter the left artium
-the left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the bicuspid [mitral] valve) to the left ventricle
-the left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta to the body proper
Oxygen poor blood is always kept separate from the oxygen rich blood. The left side of the heart is the stronger pump, causing blood pressure to be greatest in the aorta.
Every heartbeat is known as a cardiac cycle. Systole, or the working phase, happens when the chambers contract. Diastole, or the resting phase, is when the chambers relax. The heart beats about seventy times a minute. Internal nodes are what control the rhythmical contraction of the atria and ventricles. The sinoatrial node is known as the pacemaker because it regulates the heartbeats. The heartbeat can also be regulated by external means such as when we exercise. It is possible to get a recording of electrical changes in the heart. This recording is called an electrocardiogram, or an ECG.
Your pulse rate is the same as your heart rate. The pulse is the rhythmic expansion and recoil of an arterial wall. The beating of the heart creates pressure which sends blood to arteries and arterioles. This pressure is called blood pressure. Systolic pressure is the highest arterial pressure and happens when blood is ejected from the heart. Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure and occurs while the ventricles are relaxing. Normal adult systolic pressure should be between 95 and 135, while diastolic should be between 50 and 90.
There are two circuits that allow blood to flow through. These are the pulmonary circuit, which exchanges gases, and they systemic circuit which exchanges with tissue fluid. The coronary arteries are the first branches off of the aorta and serve the actual heart muscle. Blood pressure and osmotic pressure are what control the movement of fluid through the capillary wall.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of early death among Western countries. Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, can be deadly because it often is not found until it has caused a heart attack or a stroke. This can usually be controlled by living a healthier lifestyle to include not smoking, and eating a healthy diet. Clogged arteries are another disease and can be treated by a coronary bypass operation to remove plaque from the arteries.
Heart failure occurs when a person's heart fails to pump as it should. It is possible to have a heart transplant, but unfortunately, there are far more people needing hearts than there are available donors.
There are approximately five liters of blood in the human body. The heart pumps this amount every time it beats. Blood defends the body against pathogen invasions. Some blood cells destroy pathogens while others produce antibodies. Blood also clots to prevent blood loss. Blood also helps regulate body temperature by picking up heat.
Blood has multiple components. The formed elements are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These are all formed in red bone marrow. Red blood cells are more abundant than white blood cells, but are smaller in size. Plasma is the liquid that carries substances in the blood. Plasma is made up of 91% water. There are three main types of plasma proteins : albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. They are small disks that do not have a nucleus. They are needed for oxygen transport. They carry hemoglobin instead of having a nucleus. Hemoglobin is what gives blood its red color. Blood picks up carbon dioxide in the tissue, and seven percent is dissolved in the plasma. Hemoglobin directly transports 25%. The rest is transported in the plasma. About two million red blood cells are destroyed per second, and the body has to produce new ones at the same rate. When insufficient oxygen is being delivered to the cells, erythropoietin is released by the kidneys and stimulates the stem cells in the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. An insufficient number of red blood cells is known as anemia, which can be caused by an iron deficiency.
White blood cells are known as leukocytes. They have a nucleus and lack hemoglobin. They are translucent unless they have been stained. White blood cells are a very important part of the immune system because their main function is to fight infection. There are two types of white blood cells : granular leukocytes which include neutrophils. eosinophils, and basophils; and agranular leukocytes which include lymphocytes, and monocytes. One of the better known disorders having to do with white blood cells is leukemia. Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells.
Platelets are also known as thrombocytes and are responsible for the clotting of blood. When a blood vessel is damaged. platelets combine together to stop the bleeding. An inherited disorder that keeps blood from clotting is called hemophilia.
Everybody has a certain blood type. If you have type A blood, then your body has anti-B antibodies in the plasma, which would keep a blood transfusion that didn't match your blood type from being successful. Type O blood is also known as the universal donor, because it will not cause agglutination with any blood type. If a women does not have the Rh factor in her blood, and the father does, it can be passed through the placenta from the fetus to the mother. This can destroy blood cells. An Rh negative woman needs to have an immunoglobulin injection within 72 hours of giving birth to an Rh positive child.
Homeostasis is made possible by the cardiovascular system delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system, and the lymphatic system returning tissue fluid to the bloodstream.
The human body has three barriers of defense against invasions by pathogens. First of all, barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes, prevent entry. Phagocytic white blood cells help prevent infection after an invasion. Specific defenses overtake the infection by killing the disease causing agent.
One of the main types of pathogens is bacteria. These are single celled prokaryotes which lack a nucleus. There are three common shapes of a bacterium : bacillus, coccus, and spirillum. Bacteria are independent and metabolically competent. Some have plasmids, or accessory rings of DNA. This is where the genes that allow bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics are often located. Another pathogen is a virus which bridges the gap between living and nonliving. When a virus replicates inside a cell, they appear alive. Viruses are four times smaller than a bacteria. They take over the metabolic machinery of a host cell.
The lymphatic system is made up of vessels and organs. Lymph, a colorless liquid, is the fluid inside lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic organs consist of red bone marrow, the thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the spleen. Red bone marrow is where blood cells are produced. The thymus gland produces hormones and it is also the place where T lymphocytes go to mature. The spleen’s purpose is to filter blood, and lymph nodes filter lymph.
Immunity is the ability to combat disease. The body has several built in barriers to try and prevent invasion by pathogens. Some of these include the skin and mucous membranes, sebaceous glands, and normal flora. The body’s second line of defense is known as the inflammatory response. Chemical mediators are released by damaged tissue cells causing the capillaries to dilate. More blood flows through these, increasing temperature, which inhibits the growth of some pathogens.
Certain types of defenses respond to antigens. These depend on either B cells or T cells which recognize antigens. There are five different classes of antibodies. T cells recognize antigens without any help. Helper T cells regulate immunity. Memory T cells serve the purpose of just what they sound like – they remember pathogens that have been in the body before and can jumpstart an immune reaction.
Active immunity occurs when a person is well and can be vaccinated, or immunized, against an infection in order to prevent it. Passive immunity is when a person is given immune cells to fight off a disease.
Allergies are when the body is hypersensitive to specific substances. Common allergens are pollen, food, or animal hair. Allergic reactions tend to include tissue damage. A severe allergic reaction is anaphylactic shock.
A person with an autoimmune disease suffers because antibodies wrongly attack the body’s own cells, thinking that they contain foreign antigens.
One of the worst autoimmune diseases worldwide today, is AIDS, or Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome which is caused by a virus called human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV. HIV originated in Africa and spread to the United States through the Caribbean. The name AIDS was not coined until 1982. AIDS is considered a pandemic because it is a global condition.
There are three phases of HIV infection. The first phase is acute phase. The person in this phase usually has no symptoms and is highly infectious. Their CD4 T cell count has not yet fallen below 500 cells per cubic millimeter. The next phase is chronic phase. This person has a CD4 T cell count between 499 and 200 cells per cubic millimeter. They have begun to show several symptoms common to a suffering immune system. The final category is AIDS. This is when the CD4 T cell count is below 200 cells and the person has developed one or more of the opportunistic infections described by the CDC’s list of conditions for AIDS definition. Death usually follows within two to four years of this final phase.
HIV can be transmitted by sexual contact or by needle sharing between intravenous drug users. The bodily fluids with the highest concentration of HIV include blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.
There is no cure for AIDS. There is, however, ongoing research that hopes to make a vaccination available possibly as soon as the year 2010.
I. Cardiovascular system - heart and blood vessels
A. Functions
1. contractions generate blood pressure
2. blood vessels transport blood
3. exchanges at capillaries refresh blood and tissue fluid
4. heart and blood vessels regulate blood flow
B. Lymphatic System
C. Types of Blood Vessels
1. arteries
2. capillaries
3. veins
D. heart is a double pump
1. route of blood through the heart
2. controlled heartbeat
a. internal
b. external
3. electrocardiogram
E. Pulse and heart rate
F. Regulation of blood flow
G. Pulmonary Circuit
H. Systemic Circuit
I. Cardiovascular Disorders
1. high blood pressure
2. stroke and heart attack
3. treatments
4. heart disorders
II. Cardiovascular System - blood
A. Functions
B. Composition
1. plasma
C. Red Blood Cells
1. transport
2. disorders
D. White Blood Cells
1. types
2. disorders
E. Blood clotting
1. disorders
F. Blood typing
1. ABO
2. Rh
G. Homeostasis
III. Lymphatic System / Immunity
A. Bacteria
B. Viruses
C. Prions
D. Lymphatic System
1. vessels
2. organs
E. nonspecific defenses
1. barriers
2. inflammatory response
F. specific defenses
1. antibodies
2. T cells
G. Acquired Immunity
1. active
2. passive
H. Hypersensitivity
1. allergies
2. disorders
IV. AIDS
A. Origin of AIDS
1. prevalence
B. phases of HIV infection
1. acute
2. chronic
3. AIDS
C. HIV structure and life cycle
D. testing and treatment
The cardiovascular system contains the heart and the blood vessels. The main function of the heart is to pump blood, and the blood flows through the blood vessels. The true purpose of circulating blood is to service the cells. Cells are surrounded by tissue fluid. Blood exchanges substances indirectly with the cells by exchanging with tissue fluid. Blood removes waste products from the tissue fluid, and brings the tissue fluid oxygen and nutrients to keep the cells functioning. At the lungs, carbon dioxide leaves the blood, and oxygen enters the blood. There are four main functions of the cardiovascular system. First of all, contractions of the heart are what generates blood pressure. Second, blood vessels transport the blood. Third, exchanges at the capillaries refresh the blood and the tissue fluid. Lastly, the heart and the blood vessels regulate blood flow. The lymphatic system plays an important role in the functioning of the cardiovascular system because the lymphatic vessels collect the excess tissue fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system.
There are three types of blood vessels : arteries, capillaries, and veins. The walls of an artery have three layers...the endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue. Arterioles are small arteries that we can see. The arteries move blood away from the heart. The arteries then branch into blood vessels known as the capillaries. These are microscopic tubes that are made up of only endothelium with a basement membrane. Capillaries are present everywhere in the body. The veins have valves that control the direction of the flow of blood. Seventy percent of blood is in the veins at any given time.
The heart is cone shaped and is located between the lungs. The major part consists mainly of cardiac muscle tissue, and is called the myocardium. The pericardium surrounds the heart. Inside the heart, there is a wall called a septum, that separates it into the right and left sides. The heart has four chambers. The upper chambers are called the atrium, and the lower are the ventricles.
There is a specific path blood follows when it flows through the heart. The following is direct from the textbook, page 89.
-The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, which carry 02 poor blood, enter the right atrium.
- The right atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle
- the right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk, which carries O2 poor blood, eivides into two pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs
-Four pulmonary veins, which carry O2 rich blood, enter the left artium
-the left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the bicuspid [mitral] valve) to the left ventricle
-the left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta to the body proper
Oxygen poor blood is always kept separate from the oxygen rich blood. The left side of the heart is the stronger pump, causing blood pressure to be greatest in the aorta.
Every heartbeat is known as a cardiac cycle. Systole, or the working phase, happens when the chambers contract. Diastole, or the resting phase, is when the chambers relax. The heart beats about seventy times a minute. Internal nodes are what control the rhythmical contraction of the atria and ventricles. The sinoatrial node is known as the pacemaker because it regulates the heartbeats. The heartbeat can also be regulated by external means such as when we exercise. It is possible to get a recording of electrical changes in the heart. This recording is called an electrocardiogram, or an ECG.
Your pulse rate is the same as your heart rate. The pulse is the rhythmic expansion and recoil of an arterial wall. The beating of the heart creates pressure which sends blood to arteries and arterioles. This pressure is called blood pressure. Systolic pressure is the highest arterial pressure and happens when blood is ejected from the heart. Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure and occurs while the ventricles are relaxing. Normal adult systolic pressure should be between 95 and 135, while diastolic should be between 50 and 90.
There are two circuits that allow blood to flow through. These are the pulmonary circuit, which exchanges gases, and they systemic circuit which exchanges with tissue fluid. The coronary arteries are the first branches off of the aorta and serve the actual heart muscle. Blood pressure and osmotic pressure are what control the movement of fluid through the capillary wall.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of early death among Western countries. Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, can be deadly because it often is not found until it has caused a heart attack or a stroke. This can usually be controlled by living a healthier lifestyle to include not smoking, and eating a healthy diet. Clogged arteries are another disease and can be treated by a coronary bypass operation to remove plaque from the arteries.
Heart failure occurs when a person's heart fails to pump as it should. It is possible to have a heart transplant, but unfortunately, there are far more people needing hearts than there are available donors.
There are approximately five liters of blood in the human body. The heart pumps this amount every time it beats. Blood defends the body against pathogen invasions. Some blood cells destroy pathogens while others produce antibodies. Blood also clots to prevent blood loss. Blood also helps regulate body temperature by picking up heat.
Blood has multiple components. The formed elements are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These are all formed in red bone marrow. Red blood cells are more abundant than white blood cells, but are smaller in size. Plasma is the liquid that carries substances in the blood. Plasma is made up of 91% water. There are three main types of plasma proteins : albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. They are small disks that do not have a nucleus. They are needed for oxygen transport. They carry hemoglobin instead of having a nucleus. Hemoglobin is what gives blood its red color. Blood picks up carbon dioxide in the tissue, and seven percent is dissolved in the plasma. Hemoglobin directly transports 25%. The rest is transported in the plasma. About two million red blood cells are destroyed per second, and the body has to produce new ones at the same rate. When insufficient oxygen is being delivered to the cells, erythropoietin is released by the kidneys and stimulates the stem cells in the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. An insufficient number of red blood cells is known as anemia, which can be caused by an iron deficiency.
White blood cells are known as leukocytes. They have a nucleus and lack hemoglobin. They are translucent unless they have been stained. White blood cells are a very important part of the immune system because their main function is to fight infection. There are two types of white blood cells : granular leukocytes which include neutrophils. eosinophils, and basophils; and agranular leukocytes which include lymphocytes, and monocytes. One of the better known disorders having to do with white blood cells is leukemia. Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells.
Platelets are also known as thrombocytes and are responsible for the clotting of blood. When a blood vessel is damaged. platelets combine together to stop the bleeding. An inherited disorder that keeps blood from clotting is called hemophilia.
Everybody has a certain blood type. If you have type A blood, then your body has anti-B antibodies in the plasma, which would keep a blood transfusion that didn't match your blood type from being successful. Type O blood is also known as the universal donor, because it will not cause agglutination with any blood type. If a women does not have the Rh factor in her blood, and the father does, it can be passed through the placenta from the fetus to the mother. This can destroy blood cells. An Rh negative woman needs to have an immunoglobulin injection within 72 hours of giving birth to an Rh positive child.
Homeostasis is made possible by the cardiovascular system delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system, and the lymphatic system returning tissue fluid to the bloodstream.
The human body has three barriers of defense against invasions by pathogens. First of all, barriers such as the skin and mucous membranes, prevent entry. Phagocytic white blood cells help prevent infection after an invasion. Specific defenses overtake the infection by killing the disease causing agent.
One of the main types of pathogens is bacteria. These are single celled prokaryotes which lack a nucleus. There are three common shapes of a bacterium : bacillus, coccus, and spirillum. Bacteria are independent and metabolically competent. Some have plasmids, or accessory rings of DNA. This is where the genes that allow bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics are often located. Another pathogen is a virus which bridges the gap between living and nonliving. When a virus replicates inside a cell, they appear alive. Viruses are four times smaller than a bacteria. They take over the metabolic machinery of a host cell.
The lymphatic system is made up of vessels and organs. Lymph, a colorless liquid, is the fluid inside lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic organs consist of red bone marrow, the thymus gland, lymph nodes, and the spleen. Red bone marrow is where blood cells are produced. The thymus gland produces hormones and it is also the place where T lymphocytes go to mature. The spleen’s purpose is to filter blood, and lymph nodes filter lymph.
Immunity is the ability to combat disease. The body has several built in barriers to try and prevent invasion by pathogens. Some of these include the skin and mucous membranes, sebaceous glands, and normal flora. The body’s second line of defense is known as the inflammatory response. Chemical mediators are released by damaged tissue cells causing the capillaries to dilate. More blood flows through these, increasing temperature, which inhibits the growth of some pathogens.
Certain types of defenses respond to antigens. These depend on either B cells or T cells which recognize antigens. There are five different classes of antibodies. T cells recognize antigens without any help. Helper T cells regulate immunity. Memory T cells serve the purpose of just what they sound like – they remember pathogens that have been in the body before and can jumpstart an immune reaction.
Active immunity occurs when a person is well and can be vaccinated, or immunized, against an infection in order to prevent it. Passive immunity is when a person is given immune cells to fight off a disease.
Allergies are when the body is hypersensitive to specific substances. Common allergens are pollen, food, or animal hair. Allergic reactions tend to include tissue damage. A severe allergic reaction is anaphylactic shock.
A person with an autoimmune disease suffers because antibodies wrongly attack the body’s own cells, thinking that they contain foreign antigens.
One of the worst autoimmune diseases worldwide today, is AIDS, or Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome which is caused by a virus called human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV. HIV originated in Africa and spread to the United States through the Caribbean. The name AIDS was not coined until 1982. AIDS is considered a pandemic because it is a global condition.
There are three phases of HIV infection. The first phase is acute phase. The person in this phase usually has no symptoms and is highly infectious. Their CD4 T cell count has not yet fallen below 500 cells per cubic millimeter. The next phase is chronic phase. This person has a CD4 T cell count between 499 and 200 cells per cubic millimeter. They have begun to show several symptoms common to a suffering immune system. The final category is AIDS. This is when the CD4 T cell count is below 200 cells and the person has developed one or more of the opportunistic infections described by the CDC’s list of conditions for AIDS definition. Death usually follows within two to four years of this final phase.
HIV can be transmitted by sexual contact or by needle sharing between intravenous drug users. The bodily fluids with the highest concentration of HIV include blood, semen, vaginal fluid, and breast milk.
There is no cure for AIDS. There is, however, ongoing research that hopes to make a vaccination available possibly as soon as the year 2010.
Aside from the textbook, I used the following web sources
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/MEDLINEPLUS/ency/images/ency/fullsize/9123.jpg
http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/adam/images/en/blood-types-picture.jpg
http://ucatlas.ucsc.edu/health/aids/images/AIDS_Map_Adults1.gif
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